ASTM F1693-96(2003)

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Designation:F1693–96 (Reapproved 2003)
Standard Guide for
Consideration of Bioremediation as an Oil Spill Response
Method on Land
This standard is issued under the fixed designation F1693; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
1. Scope Bioremediation in Oil Spill Response—Sand and Gravel
Beaches
1.1 The goal of this guide is to provide recommendations
for the use of biodegradation enhancing agents for remediating
3. Terminology
oil spills in terrestrial environments.
3.1 Definitions:
1.2 This is a general guide only, assuming the bioremedia-
3.1.1 aerobes—organismsthatrequireairorfreeoxygenfor
tion agent to be safe, effective, available, and applied in
growth.
accordance with both manufacturers’ recommendations and
3.1.2 anaerobes—organisms that grow in the absence of air
relevantenvironmentalregulations.Asreferredtointhisguide,
or oxygen and do not use molecular oxygen in respiration.
oil includes crude and refined petroleum products.
3.1.3 bioaugmentation—the addition of microorganisms
1.3 This guide addresses the application of bioremediation
(predominantly bacteria) to increase the biodegradation rate of
agents alone or in conjunction with other technologies, follow-
target pollutants.
ing spills on surface terrestrial environments.
3.1.4 biodegradation—chemical alteration and breakdown
1.4 This guide does not consider the ecological effects of
of a substance, usually to smaller products, caused by micro-
bioremediation agents.
organisms or their enzymes.
1.5 This guide applies to all terrestrial environments. Spe-
3.1.5 bioremediation—enhancement of biodegradation.
cifically,itaddressesvarioustechnologicalapplicationsusedin
3.1.6 bioremediation agents—inorganic and organic com-
these environments.
pounds and microorganisms that are added to enhance degra-
1.6 In making bioremediation-use decisions, appropriate
dation processes, predominantly microbial.
government authorities must be consulted as required by law.
3.1.7 biostimulation—the addition of microbial nutrients,
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the
oxygen, heat, or water, or some combination thereof, to
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
enhance the rate of biodegradation of target pollutants by
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
indigenous species (predominantly bacteria).
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-
3.1.8 ecosystem—organisms and the surrounding environ-
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use. In addition, it is the
ment combined in a community that is self-supporting.
responsibility of the user to ensure that such activity takes
3.1.9 identification—the process of establishing the identity
place under the control and direction of a qualified person with
of an unknown organism by comparing the properties with
fullknowledgeofanypotentialorappropriatesafetyandhealth
respect to known organisms.
protocols.
3.1.10 indigenous—native to a given habitat or environ-
2. Referenced Documents ment.
3.1.11 methemoglobinemia—an acquired blood disorder
2.1 ASTM Standards:
leadingtooxygendeprivation,stupor,anddeathfromexposure
F1481 Guide for Ecological Considerations for the Use of
to nitrates in drinking water.
3.1.12 nutrient—a substance that supports the growth of
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee F20 on Hazardous
organisms.
Substances and Oil Spill Response and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee
3.1.13 refined petroleum products—products derived by
F20.13 on Treatment.
means of various treatment processes from crude oil, a highly
Current edition approved Oct. 1, 2003. Published May 1996. DOI: 10.1520/
complex mixture of paraffinic, cycloparaffinic, and aromatic
F1693-96R03.
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM
Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on Withdrawn. The last approved version of this historical standard is referenced
the ASTM website. on www.astm.org.
Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.
F1693–96 (2003)
hydrocarbonsthatcontainsalowpercentageofsulfurandtrace 5.3 Bioremediation must be conducted under the guidance
amounts of nitrogen and oxygen compounds. Hydrocarbon of qualified personnel who understand the safety and health
products made by refining crude oils are specified in Section 5 aspects of site activities.
of the Annual Book of ASTM Standards (1).
6. Background
3.1.14 risk—the probability or likelihood that an adverse
6.1 Generalbackgroundinformationconcerningapproaches
effect will occur.
to bioremediation are presented in this guide, as well as
3.1.15 species—a taxonomic category characterized by in-
discussed in Guide F1481. Pertinent information from that
dividuals of the same genus that are mutually similar and are
guide is included in 6.1.1 through 6.1.4, as follows:
able to interbreed.
6.1.1 Approaches to bioremediation for oil spill response
3.1.16 terrestrial—consisting of land, as distinguished from
include biostimulation, the addition of nutrients, oxygen, heat,
water.
or water, or combination thereof, to stimulate indigenous
3.1.17 toxicity—the property of a material, or combination
microorganisms, and bioaugmentation, the addition of oil-
of materials, to affect organisms adversely.
degrading microorganisms, which may be used in combination
with biostimulation (5-15).As a precaution, it should be noted
4. Significance and Use
that nutrient components may be toxic or harmful to plants,
4.1 The purpose of this guide is to provide remediation
animals, and humans, and that non-indigenous species may
managers and spill response teams with guidance on an
alter the indigenous microbial ecological balance at least
alternate means (called bioremediation) of treating oil spills
temporarily. Water effluent nitrate levels, which can affect
safely and effectively on and below terrestrial surfaces.
drinking water sources, should be minimized to diminish risks
4.2 Bioremediation is one of many available tools and may
of anemias such as methemoglobinemia. Similarly, excessive
not be applicable to all situations. This guide can be used in
ammonium levels should be avoided because they can affect
conjunction with other ASTM guides addressing oil spill
fish and invertebrates, since many are immobile and cannot
responseoperations,includingGuideF1481,aswellasoptions
avoid the treated area. Therefore, nitrogen and other nutrient
other than bioremediation.
levels should be monitored. Instructions to ensure safety and
effectiveproductuseshouldbeestablishedbythemanufacturer
5. General Considerations for Bioremediation Use
orsupplierforeachcommercialmicrobialproduct,andspecific
5.1 Bioremediation technologies attempt to accelerate the
instructions should be followed by the product user.
natural rate of biodegradation. In situ, solid-phase, and slurry-
6.1.2 Biostimulationhasbeenshowntoenhancethebiodeg-
phase represent the major bioremediation technologies used.
radation of terrestrial oil spills. Biostimulation uses the addi-
Thesetechnologiesmaybeunnecessaryinthosecasesinwhich
tion of appropriate nutrients (for example, nitrogen, phospho-
the natural rate of biodegradation suffices. The use of adequate
rus, potassium, micronutrients, and so forth), oxygen, heat, or
controlsinpreliminaryfieldstudies,ortheresultsofpreviously
water, which may have been limiting factors. If microbial
reported studies, will assist in determining the extent to which
degraders of the target oil contaminants are present in the soil
microorganism or nutrient amendments, or both, are necessary
or contaminated waters, this approach may lead to increases in
to obtain the desired rate of degradation.
the rate of degradation. In some cases there may not be a
5.2 Bioremediation performance depends on the efficiency
sufficient indigenous oil-degrading population to stimulate.
of the petroleum hydrocarbon degrading indigenous microor-
This may be the case in environments in which the degrader
ganisms or bioaugmentation agents. Performance also depends
population has not developed. Alternately, the toxic nature of
on the availability of rate-limiting nutrients and the suscepti-
the petroleum product may diminish or eliminate microorgan-
bility of the target crude oil or refined product to microbial
isms. Also, the excavation of soil from anoxic zones and
degradation.
subsequent relocation to an oxygen-rich environment may
5.2.1 Ingeneral,aerobicbioremediationsystemsdegradeoil
resultinalackofmicrobialdegradersduetothedrasticchange
more rapidly than anaerobic systems.
in conditions (16). The microbial response to biostimulation
5.2.2 Numerous microorganisms, represented by hundreds
may include a lag period (weeks to months) for the growth or
of species, are responsible for the degradation of the oil.
natural selection of degraders to occur. Microorganisms, as
Various texts describe the biodegradability and biodegradation
well as oil contaminants, should be monitored throughout the
rates of a variety of organic compounds present in oil (2,3).
process to establish efficacy and safety. Comparisons with
5.2.3 The biodegradation of saturated hydrocarbons in the
databases that include soil and water microorganisms may be
absence of molecular oxygen is limited to a few species. In
used to identify microbes.
general, shorter chain hydrocarbons are less effectively de-
6.1.3 Bioaugmentation may use commercial microbial
graded in anaerobic conditions compared with aerobic condi-
products, on-site production of microbes from stock cultures,
tions.However,anaerobicdegradationispossible (4)ifthereis
or laboratory isolation, characterization, and subsequent pro-
at least one double bond on the hydrocarbon molecule, in an
duction of microbes from the particular site (or another site
appropriate position.
similar in soil and contaminant characteristics). This approach
may increase soil microbe concentrations rapidly. Microbes
selected must be nonpathogenic and must metabolize the oil
contaminant(s), reducing toxicity. Growth requirements of the
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references at the end of
this guide. microbes need to be well understood. Their growth rate is
F1693–96 (2003)
controlled by the limiting growth conditions of temperature, treatment when using systems that require excavation. It may
pH, nutrients, water, oxygen, the contaminated medium (soil, include the designation of a materials staging area present
sludge, and water), and oil. Microorganisms as well as oil within the treatment facility and equipment decontamination
components should be monitored to establish efficacy and within delineated exclusion zones.
safety.
6.4.2 Acomprehensive health and safety program should be
6.1.4 While apparently safe and effective in the laboratory
ineffectthroughouttheremediationproject.Thisprogrammay
setting, genetically engineered oil-degrading microorganisms include medical examinations of employees, contact and res-
have not yet been authorized for environmental release (16).
piratory protection, and air, soil, and water monitoring.
6.2 Thereareseveralbioremediationtechnologiesavailable.
6.4.3 The treatment facility, or biopad, should contain an
It is important to understand the potential use of these systems
appropriate rainfall event protection (for example, 10 years,
when assessing their applicability for full-scale implementa-
24-h rainfall event).After the appropriate soil moisture content
tion. Costs are determined by the size of the site, soil
is determined for the specific treatment, a water budget should
properties, type and level of oil contaminant(s), goals, time
be calculated. This should maintain the proper moisture con-
allowed for attaining the goals, and testing requirements.
tent balance between moisture added by irrigation and rainfall,
6.3 In situ bioremediation occurs without excavation of the and moisture lost through evaporation, transpiration, and
percolation.
contaminatedsoil.Thistechnologyreliespredominantlyonthe
enhanced degradation of oil by bacteria following the addition
6.4.4 Solid heaping (biopiles or soil piles) involves piling
of nutrients, air, oxygen or oxygen-releasing compounds, and
the contaminated soil to several meters, usually over a network
moisture. This has been demonstrated through the use of
of perforated piping that may be layered throughout. Nutrients,
indigenous as well as augmented microorganisms. Ground-
water, and microorganisms are added through simple irrigation
water treatment may be achieved simultaneously or through
techniques, and air is drawn through pipes by vacuum. The
pumpand ex situtreatmentmethods.Anaerobicbiodegradation
vacuum system exhaust may be treated prior to discharge,
systems can also be promoted; however, their utility is limited.
effectively removing airborne volatile or semi-volatile compo-
Since soil is not excavated, volatile release is limited, and the
nents.Advantagesincludearequirementforlessspaceandless
risks and costs associated with excavation and treatment are
material handling compared with solid-phase treatment (land-
reduced.
farming), and diminished volatile losses. Leachates are col-
6.3.1 Bioventing involves the introduction of air under lected and treated, recirculated or discharged.
pressure to the unsaturated zone of contaminated soil. The
6.4.5 Composting promotes biodegradation in stored wastes
process pulls or pushes air into the soil for use by the aerobic
by means of supplementation with bulking agents (biodegrad-
microorganisms. Although the purpose is to deliver oxygen
able or non-biodegradable) that enhance soil permeability. The
required by the microbes, the flow of air will desorb some of
biologic decaying process is often thermophilic, thus limiting
the more volatile components from the soil (for example,
the types of microbes and associated degradation rates. Three
gasoline-contaminatedsoil),andtheexhaustgasesmayhaveto
basic systems have been used. “Open windrow” stacks the
betreated.Successfultreatmentrequiresadequatesoilporosity,
wasteinlongpilesthatareaeratedthroughconstantexcavation
moisture, nutrients, and microorganisms with the appropriate
and reconstruction.“ Static windrow” is similar to heap meth-
biodegradation abilities. Additives may be provided at or
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