ASTM F1693-96

NOTICE: This standard has either been superceded and replaced by a new version or discontinued.
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Designation: F 1693 – 96
Standard Guide for
Consideration of Bioremediation as an Oil Spill Response
Method on Land
This standard is issued under the fixed designation F 1693; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
1. Scope 3.1.1 aerobes—organisms that require air or free oxygen for
growth.
1.1 The goal of this guide is to provide recommendations
3.1.2 anaerobes—organisms that grow in the absence of air
for the use of biodegradation enhancing agents for remediating
or oxygen and do not use molecular oxygen in respiration.
oil spills in terrestrial environments.
3.1.3 bioaugmentation—the addition of microorganisms
1.2 This is a general guide only, assuming the bioremedia-
(predominantly bacteria) to increase the biodegradation rate of
tion agent to be safe, effective, available, and applied in
target pollutants.
accordance with both manufacturers’ recommendations and
3.1.4 biodegradation—chemical alteration and breakdown
relevant environmental regulations. As referred to in this guide,
of a substance, usually to smaller products, caused by micro-
oil includes crude and refined petroleum products.
organisms or their enzymes.
1.3 This guide addresses the application of bioremediation
3.1.5 bioremediation—enhancement of biodegradation.
agents alone or in conjunction with other technologies, follow-
3.1.6 bioremediation agents—inorganic and organic com-
ing spills on surface terrestrial environments.
pounds and microorganisms that are added to enhance degra-
1.4 This guide does not consider the ecological effects of
dation processes, predominantly microbial.
bioremediation agents.
3.1.7 biostimulation—the addition of microbial nutrients,
1.5 This guide applies to all terrestrial environments. Spe-
oxygen, heat, or water, or some combination thereof, to
cifically, it addresses various technological applications used in
enhance the rate of biodegradation of target pollutants by
these environments.
indigenous species (predominantly bacteria).
1.6 In making bioremediation-use decisions, appropriate
3.1.8 ecosystem—organisms and the surrounding environ-
government authorities must be consulted as required by law.
ment combined in a community that is self-supporting.
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the
3.1.9 identification—the process of establishing the identity
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
of an unknown organism by comparing the properties with
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
respect to known organisms.
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-
3.1.10 indigenous—native to a given habitat or environ-
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use. In addition, it is the
ment.
responsibility of the user to ensure that such activity takes
3.1.11 methemoglobinemia—an acquired blood disorder
place under the control and direction of a qualified person with
leading to oxygen deprivation, stupor, and death from exposure
full knowledge of any potential or appropriate safety and health
to nitrates in drinking water.
protocols.
3.1.12 nutrient—a substance that supports the growth of
2. Referenced Documents
organisms.
3.1.13 refined petroleum products—products derived by
2.1 ASTM Standards:
means of various treatment processes from crude oil, a highly
F 1481 Guide for Ecological Considerations for the Use of
complex mixture of paraffinic, cycloparaffinic, and aromatic
Bioremediation in Oil Spill Response—Sand and Gravel
hydrocarbons that contains a low percentage of sulfur and trace
Beaches
amounts of nitrogen and oxygen compounds. Hydrocarbon
3. Terminology
products made by refining crude oils are specified in Section 5
of the Annual Book of ASTM Standards (1).
3.1 Definitions:
3.1.14 risk—the probability or likelihood that an adverse
effect will occur.
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee F-20 on Hazardous
Substances and Oil Spill Response and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee
F20.24 on Bioremediation.
Current edition approved March 10, 1996. Published May 1996. The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references at the end of
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 11.04. this guide.
Copyright © ASTM, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.
NOTICE: This standard has either been superceded and replaced by a new version or discontinued.
Contact ASTM International (www.astm.org) for the latest information.
F 1693
3.1.15 species—a taxonomic category characterized by in- or water, or combination thereof, to stimulate indigenous
dividuals of the same genus that are mutually similar and are microorganisms, and bioaugmentation, the addition of oil-
able to interbreed.
degrading microorganisms, which may be used in combination
3.1.16 terrestrial—consisting of land, as distinguished from with biostimulation (5-15). As a precaution, it should be noted
water.
that nutrient components may be toxic or harmful to plants,
3.1.17 toxicity—the property of a material, or combination animals, and humans, and that non-indigenous species may
of materials, to affect organisms adversely.
alter the indigenous microbial ecological balance at least
temporarily. Water effluent nitrate levels, which can affect
4. Significance and Use
drinking water sources, should be minimized to diminish risks
4.1 The purpose of this guide is to provide remediation
of anemias such as methemoglobinemia. Similarly, excessive
managers and spill response teams with guidance on an
ammonium levels should be avoided because they can affect
alternate means (called bioremediation) of treating oil spills
fish and invertebrates, since many are immobile and cannot
safely and effectively on and below terrestrial surfaces.
avoid the treated area. Therefore, nitrogen and other nutrient
4.2 Bioremediation is one of many available tools and may
levels should be monitored. Instructions to ensure safety and
not be applicable to all situations. This guide can be used in
effective product use should be established by the manufacturer
conjunction with other ASTM guides addressing oil spill
or supplier for each commercial microbial product, and specific
response operations, including Guide F 1481, as well as
instructions should be followed by the product user.
options other than bioremediation.
6.1.2 Biostimulation has been shown to enhance the biodeg-
radation of terrestrial oil spills. Biostimulation uses the addi-
5. General Considerations for Bioremediation Use
tion of appropriate nutrients (for example, nitrogen, phospho-
5.1 Bioremediation technologies attempt to accelerate the
rus, potassium, micronutrients, and so forth), oxygen, heat, or
natural rate of biodegradation. In situ, solid-phase, and slurry-
water, which may have been limiting factors. If microbial
phase represent the major bioremediation technologies used.
degraders of the target oil contaminants are present in the soil
These technologies may be unnecessary in those cases in which
or contaminated waters, this approach may lead to increases in
the natural rate of biodegradation suffices. The use of adequate
the rate of degradation. In some cases there may not be a
controls in preliminary field studies, or the results of previously
sufficient indigenous oil-degrading population to stimulate.
reported studies, will assist in determining the extent to which
This may be the case in environments in which the degrader
microorganism or nutrient amendments, or both, are necessary
population has not developed. Alternately, the toxic nature of
to obtain the desired rate of degradation.
the petroleum product may diminish or eliminate microorgan-
5.2 Bioremediation performance depends on the efficiency
isms. Also, the excavation of soil from anoxic zones and
of the petroleum hydrocarbon degrading indigenous microor-
subsequent relocation to an oxygen-rich environment may
ganisms or bioaugmentation agents. Performance also depends
result in a lack of microbial degraders due to the drastic change
on the availability of rate-limiting nutrients and the suscepti-
in conditions (16). The microbial response to biostimulation
bility of the target crude oil or refined product to microbial
may include a lag period (weeks to months) for the growth or
degradation.
natural selection of degraders to occur. Microorganisms, as
5.2.1 In general, aerobic bioremediation systems degrade oil
well as oil contaminants, should be monitored throughout the
more rapidly than anaerobic systems.
process to establish efficacy and safety. Comparisons with
5.2.2 Numerous microorganisms, represented by hundreds
databases that include soil and water microorganisms may be
of species, are responsible for the degradation of the oil.
used to identify microbes.
Various texts describe the biodegradability and biodegradation
6.1.3 Bioaugmentation may use commercial microbial
rates of a variety of organic compounds present in oil (2,3).
products, on-site production of microbes from stock cultures,
5.2.3 The biodegradation of saturated hydrocarbons in the
or laboratory isolation, characterization, and subsequent pro-
absence of molecular oxygen is limited to a few species. In
duction of microbes from the particular site (or another site
general, shorter chain hydrocarbons are less effectively de-
similar in soil and contaminant characteristics). This approach
graded in anaerobic conditions compared with aerobic condi-
may increase soil microbe concentrations rapidly. Microbes
tions. However, anaerobic degradation is possible (4) if there is
selected must be nonpathogenic and must metabolize the oil
at least one double bond on the hydrocarbon molecule, in an
contaminant(s), reducing toxicity. Growth requirements of the
appropriate position.
microbes need to be well understood. Their growth rate is
5.3 Bioremediation must be conducted under the guidance
controlled by the limiting growth conditions of temperature,
of qualified personnel who understand the safety and health
pH, nutrients, water, oxygen, the contaminated medium (soil,
aspects of site activities.
sludge, and water), and oil. Microorganisms as well as oil
components should be monitored to establish efficacy and
6. Background
safety.
6.1 General background information concerning approaches
6.1.4 While apparently safe and effective in the laboratory
to bioremediation are presented in this guide, as well as
setting, genetically engineered oil-degrading microorganisms
discussed in Guide F 1481. Pertinent information from that
have not yet been authorized for environmental release (16).
guide is included in 6.1.1 through 6.1.4, as follows:
6.1.1 Approaches to bioremediation for oil spill response 6.2 There are several bioremediation technologies available.
include biostimulation, the addition of nutrients, oxygen, heat, It is important to understand the potential use of these systems
NOTICE: This standard has either been superceded and replaced by a new version or discontinued.
Contact ASTM International (www.astm.org) for the latest information.
F 1693
when assessing their applicability for full-scale implementa- 24-h rainfall event). After the appropriate soil moisture content
tion. Costs are determined by the size of the site, soil is determined for the specific treatment, a water budget should
properties, type and level of oil contaminant(s), goals, time be calculated. This should maintain the proper moisture con-
allowed for attaining the goals, and testing requirements. tent balance between moisture added by irrigation and rainfall,
and moisture lost through evaporation, transpiration, and
6.3 In situ bioremediation occurs without excavation of the
percolation.
contaminated soil. This technology relies predominantly on the
6.4.4 Solid heaping (biopiles or soil piles) involves piling
enhanced degradation of oil by bacteria following the addition
the contaminated soil to several meters, usually over a network
of nutrients, air, oxygen or oxygen-releasing compounds, and
of perforated piping that may be layered throughout. Nutrients,
moisture. This has been demonstrated through the use of
water, and microorganisms are added through simple irrigation
indigenous as well as augmented microorganisms. Ground-
techniques, and air is drawn through pipes by vacuum. The
water treatment may be achieved simultaneously or through
vacuum system exhaust may be treated prior to discharge,
pump and ex situ treatment methods. Anaerobic biodegradation
effectively removing airborne volatile or semi-volatile compo-
systems can also be promoted; however, their utility is limited.
nents. Advantages include a requirement for less space and less
Since soil is not excavated, volatile release is limited, and the
material handling compared with solid-phase treatment (land-
risks and costs associated with excavation and treatment are
farming), and diminished volatile losses. Leachates are col-
reduced.
lected and treated, recirculated or discharged.
6.3.1 Bioventing involves the introduction of air under
6.4.5 Composting promotes biodegradation in stored wastes
pressure to the unsaturated zone of contaminated soil. The
by means of supplementation with bulking agents (biodegrad-
process pulls or pushes air into the soil for use by the aerobic
able or non-biodegradable) that enhance soil permeability. The
microorganisms. Although the purpose is to deliver oxygen
biologic decaying process is often thermophilic, thus limiting
required by the microbes, the flow of air will desorb some of
the types of microbes and associated degradation rates. Three
the more volatile components from the soil (for example,
basic systems have been used. “Open windrow” stacks the
gasoline-contaminated soil), and the exhaust gases may have to
waste in long piles that are aerated through constant excavation
be treated. Successful treatment requires adequate soil porosity,
and reconstruction.“ Static windrow” is similar to heap meth-
moisture, nutrients, and microorganisms with the appropriate
ods, laying the soil over a network of perforated pipes that
biodegradation abilities. Additives may be provided at or near
aerate through forced air. “In-vessel” methods enclose the soil
the surface to percolate through the treatment zone.
in a closed reactor that aerates and mixes the soil both
6.3.2 Biosparging is similar to bioventing except that air is
physically and by means of forced air. The material remaining
injected directly into the ground below the water table in
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