ASTM F1990-23

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Designation: F1990 − 19 F1990 − 23
Standard Guide for
In-Situ Burning of Spilled Oil: Ignition Devices
This standard is issued under the fixed designation F1990; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
1. Scope
1.1 This guide relates to the use of in-situ burning of spilled oil. The focus of the guide is in-situ burning of oil on water, but the
ignition techniques and devices described in the guide are generally applicable to in-situ burning of oil spilled on land as well.
1.2 The purpose of this guide is to provide information that will enable oil-spill responders to select the appropriate techniques
and devices to successfully ignite oil spilled on water.
1.3 This guide is one of four related to in-situ burning of oil spills. Guide F1788 addresses environmental and operational
considerations. Guide F2152 addresses fire-resistant booms, and Guide F2230 addresses burning in ice conditions.
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility
of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of
regulatory limitations prior to use. In particular, the storage, transport, and use of ignition devices may be subject to regulations
that will vary according to the jurisdiction. While guidance of a general nature is provided herein, users of this guide should
determine regulations that apply to their situation.
1.5 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization
established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued
by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.
2. Referenced Documents
2.1 ASTM Standards:
D92 Test Method for Flash and Fire Points by Cleveland Open Cup Tester
D975 Specification for Diesel Fuel
F1788 Guide for In-Situ Burning of Oil Spills on Water: Environmental and Operational Considerations
F2152 Guide for In-Situ Burning of Spilled Oil: Fire-Resistant Boom
F2230 Guide for In-situ Burning of Oil Spills on Water: Ice Conditions
3. Terminology
3.1 Definitions:
3.1.1 fire point—point, n—the lowest temperature at which a specimen will sustain burning for 5 s. (Test Method D92)
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee F20 on Hazardous Substances and Oil Spill Response and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee F20.15
on In-Situ Burning.
Current edition approved March 1, 2019March 1, 2023. Published March 2019March 2023. Originally approved in 1999. Last previous edition approved in 20132019 as
F1990 – 07F1990 – 19.(2013). DOI: 10.1520/F1990-19.10.1520/F1990-23.
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM Standards
volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on the ASTM website.
Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States
F1990 − 23
3.1.2 flash point—point, n—the lowest temperature corrected to a barometric pressure of 101.3 kPa (760 mm Hg), at which
application of a test flame causes the vapor of a specimen to ignite under specified conditions of test. (Test Method D92)
4. Significance and Use
4.1 This guide describes the requirements for igniting oil for the purpose of in-situ burning. It is intended to aid decision-makers
and spill-responders in contingency planning, spill response, and training, and to aid manufacturers in developing effective ignition
devices.
4.2 This guide describes criteria for the design and selection of ignition devices for in-situ burning applications.
4.3 This guide is not intended as a detailed operational manual for the ignition and burning of spilled oil.
5. Overview of the Requirements for Igniting Spilled Oil on Water
5.1 The focus of this section is on the in-situ combustion of on-water oil spills.
5.2 Successful ignition of oil on water requires two components: heating the oil such that sufficient vapors are produced to support
continuous combustion, and then, providing an ignition source to start burning. The temperature at which the oil produces vapors
at a sufficient rate to ignite is called the flash point. At a temperature above the flash point, known as the fire point, the oil will
produce vapors at a rate sufficient to support continuous combustion.
5.3 For light refined products, such as gasoline and some unweathered crude oils, the fire point may be in the range of ambient
temperatures, in which case, little if any, preheating would be required to enable ignition. For other oil products, and particularly
those that have weathered or emulsified, or both, the fire point will be much greater than ambient temperatures, and substantial
preheating will be required.
5.4 The energy required to raise the temperature of the surface of an oil slick to its fire point depends on the slick thickness. While
the oil is being heated by an igniter, heat is being conducted and convected to the underlying water. If the slick is sufficiently thick
to insulate against these heat losses and allow the surface layer of oil to heat to its fire point, the oil will start to burn in the vicinity
of the igniter. The minimum ignitable thickness for most oils is about 2 to 3 mm (see Guide F1788).
5.5 Aside from oil type, other factors that can affect the ignitability of oil on water include the wind speed and the emulsification
of the oil. Secondary factors include ambient temperature and waves. The effect of these factors can be summarized as follows:
5.5.1 The maximum wind speed for successful ignition for large burns has been estimated to be approximately 10 m/s (20 knots)
(1, 2) .
5.5.2 For more rapid flame spreading, slicks should be ignited at the upwind edge.
5.5.3 Weathered oils require a longer ignition time than fresher oils with a higher volatile compound content.
5.5.4 The effect of water content is similar to that of weathering, more ignition time being required to ignite a slick of emulsion.
Once an emulsified slick is ignited, heat from the fire may break the emulsion and overcome this problem. Emulsion-breaking
chemicals can be used to aid in initial ignition attempts.
5.5.5 Emulsions (especially stable emulsions) are very difficult to ignite without the use of emulsion-breaking chemicals.
6. Overview of Available Ignition Devices
6.1 Simple Ignition Techniques:
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references at the end of this standard.
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6.1.1 Propane or butane torches, or weed burners, and rags or sorbent pads soaked in fuel have been used to ignite oil on water.
Propane torches tend to blow thin oil slicks away from the flames and are most applicable to thick contained slicks. Diesel is more
effective than gasoline as a fuel to soak sorbents or rags because it burns slower and hotter, and hence, supplies more preheating
to the oil.
6.1.2 Another effective surface-based igniter is gelled fuel. Gelling agents can be used with gasoline, diesel, or crude oil to produce
a gelled mixture that is ignited and placed in an oil slick.
6.2 Hand-Held Igniters—A variety of igniters have been developed for use as devices to be handthrown,hand-deployed, either
from ground level or from helicopters. These igniters have used a variety of fuels, including solid propellants, gelled kerosene
cubes, reactive chemical compounds, and combinations of these. Burn temperatures for these devices range from 700 to
2500°C,2500 °C, and burn times range from 30 s to 10 min. Most hand-held igniters have delay fuses that provide sufficient time
to throw the igniter and allow it and the slick to stabilize prior to ignition.
6.3 Helicopter-Slung Ignition Systems—These systems have been adapted from devices used for burning forest slash and for
setting backfires during forest-fire control operations. These devices emit a stream of gelled fuel, __fuel, generally gasoline or a
mixture of gasoline, diesel, or crude oil, or a combination thereof. As the gelled fuel leaves the device, it is lighted by an
electrically-ignited propane jet. The burning gelled or not fuel falls as a stream that breaks into individual globules before hitting
the slick. The burning globules produce an 800°C800 °C flame for up to 6 min. Tank capacities for the gelled fuel mixture range
from 110 to 1100 L (30 to 300 gal).
7. Ignition Device Test
7.1 The following is intended as a simple test to evaluate the ability of an ignition device to ignite a thick slick of weathered oil.
The ignition test does not consider operability factors, such as safe operation of the device, accuracy of deployment, and reliability
of ignition components.
7.2 The test parameters are intended to reflect minimum conditions for acceptable performance. More stringent conditions, such
as higher wind speed or the use of weathered or emulsified oils, may be considered for some ignition devices.
7.3 Test Apparatus—The ignition test is carried out in an approximately square test container. The test container must have a
surface area that is the greater of ten times the area covered by the ignition device, or 1 m . A typical test container would be a
steel pan of the required dimensions. To minimize wind-shielding by the walls of the container, the fluid level must be within 25
mm of the top of the test container.
7.4 Test Slick—The ignition test is carried out on a layer of oil with a maximum thickness of 10 mm and with a minimum
underlying water depth of 200 mm. The oil for the ignition test is Diesel Fuel Grade No. 2, which has a minimum flash point of
60 °C (see Specification D975).
7.5 Test Conditions—Throughout the test, the wind speed must be 5 m/s (10 knots) or greater.
7.6 Initial Ignition Tests—The test is initiated by activating the ignition device and deploying it into the test slick. It is
recommended that initial tests be conducted by simply placing the ignition device on the test slick. The ignition test would be
considered successful when flame is observed independent of the igniter, with flame covering the majority of the area of the test
container.
7.7 Tests for Air-Deployed Ignition Devices—For igniters intended for deployment from helicopters, additional tests should be
carried out to simulate air-deployment. These tests need not include ignition of oil but should include deployment of the device
from a height of 10 m (minimum, measured from the device to the ground) to confirm that the device functions as intended during
deployment. Tests should include deployment and operation of the device from a helicopter to ensure that the device can function
in the presence of the helicopter’s downwash.
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7.8 Test Record—The test record must include the time for successful ignition, the actual container dimensions, the initial oil layer
thickness, the underlying water depth, the air and water temperature at the start of the test, the wind speed, and any general
observations of igniter performance.
7.9 Optional Additional Tests—In addition to the performance tests listed, consideration should be given to additional testing to
address the following items depending on the intended application of the device:
7.9.1 The estimated accuracy of deployment of the ignition device on a target oil slick,
7.9.2 The resistance to damage of the device during deployment,
7.9.3 The performance in shallow pools (less than 100 mm deep) on solid ice,
7.9.4 The dependence on orientation of the igniter for proper performance,
7.9.5 Splash effects during impact with oil and water,
7.9.6 Effect on performance of temporary submergence of the igniter upon impact, and
7.9.7 Sensitivity to wind, rain, and sea state during ignition.
8. Operability
8.1 Operating Instructions—Operating instructions shall be supplied with the device and should include a description of the
following items where applicable: safe operating procedures; required preparations of the igniter, or application system, or both,
from storage to field use; type and amount of debris after use; training requirements; disposal requirements for spent igniters; and,
retrieval and handling requirements for igniters that have misfired.
8.2 Licensing for Transport and Use—The ignition device should be approved for transport via cargo aircraft. Approvals, or pilot
certifications, or both, may be required for devices intended for operation and deployment by helicopter. Users should note that
pyrotechnic materials are not commonly transported by air and that such shipments often are rejected at the point of loading at
the prerogative of the carrier despite any licensing or approvals.
8.3 Stability During Flight—For helicopter-slung devices, provision shall be made for stabilizing the device when carried by a
swivel-hook helicopter. Any such stabilizing apparatus shall not impair the ability to jettison the device in the event of an
emergency (see 9.3).
8.4 Temperature Range—The ignition device should function over an ambient temperature range of –10 to 30°C.30 °C.
8.5 Wind Conditions—The ignition device should function, including deployment and operation from a helicopter, in wind
conditions up to 10 m/s (20 knots).
9. Safety
9.1 Unintended Activation—The device should include protection against accidental activation.
9.2 Delay Upon Activation—For hand-held ignition devices, upon activation of the igniter, there should be a minimum delay of
20 s 10 s between the time the device is activated and it begins firing. It should be noted that excessive delay times may be
troublesome in allowing the igniter to drift away from the target slick.
9.3 Jettisoning of Equipment—For helicopter-slung devices, provision shall be made for jettisoning of the device, including rapid
disconnect of any power or control couplings.
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9.4 Operation—Some ignition devices require an open flame or spark for activation, that may not be desirable or safe in certain
applications, for example, for hand-held devices to be deployed from helicopters.
10. Storage
10.1 Shipping and Storage Regulations—The manufacturer of the device should specify shipping, handling, and storage
instructions, and should note any limits on extreme temperatures, or humidity during storage, or both.
10.2 Resistance to Degradation—The device should function after exposure to temperature and humidity extremes and vibration
that may be experienced during storage and shipping.
10.3 Shelf-Life—The device should have a minimum shelf-life of five years.
10.4 Maintenance—Operating instructions should specify any routine maintenance requirements, and should note components of
the igniter that are subject to degradation, their expected shelf-life, and the procedure for refurbishment or replacement of parts
following the normal shelf-life.
11. Keywords
11.1 ignition; in-situ burning; oil-spill burning; oil-spill disposal
APPENDIX
(Nonmandatory Information)
X1. BRIEF HISTORY OF IGNITER DEVELOPMENT
X1.1 This Appendixappendix is intended to provide a brief historical review of the uses of ignition devices for the in-situ burning
of spilled oil. It is not intended to be comprehensive but simply attempts to show examples of what has and has not worked in
past oil spill responses and experiments.
X1.1.1 Many different ignition devices have been used over the years to ignite or attempt to ignite marine oil spills. In 1967, four
attempts were made to ignite seemingly thick oil slicks on the sea near the Torrey Canyon using pyrotechnic devices containing
sodium chlorate, but these attempts were unsuccessful (3, 4). It was concluded that the oil had emulsified to such an extent that
it would not ignite.
X1.1.2 Oil on the shore from the Torrey Canyon spill proved virtually impossible to ignite and burn, although some success was
reported in burning unemulsified oil in pools between rocks. In this case, flame throwers and flame-thrower fuel were used to ignite
the pools, and they burned nearly to completion. Emulsified oil could be burned on the beach, as long as the flame thrower was
applied, but once the flame was removed, the combustion stopped.
X1.1.3 Production of the Kontax igniter ceased in the mid- to late-1970s (5). The device consisted of a 4-cm diameter cylindrical
metal screen 30.5 cm long and capped at both ends. A metal bar coated with metallic sodium ran through the center of the cylinder.
The annulus was filled with calcium carbide. The device weighed 1.2 kg. For safety reasons, the Kontax igniter was stored in a
sealed plastic bag.
The Kontax igniter was produced by Edward Michels GmbH of Essen, Germany.
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X1.1.4 The Kontax igniter had a unique feature, that is, it did not require activation or a starter. When the device was exposed
to water, the sodium metal reacted to produce heat and hydrogen, which instantly ignited. At the same time, the calcium carbide
reacted with water to produce acetylene, which was subsequently ignited by the burning hydrogen. The flame from the burning
acetylene preheated and ignited oil vapors. Tests to evaluate Kontax were performed in 1969 by the Dutch government (6). The
tests were carried out 25 miles offshore and on beaches and the oils used were heavy and light Arabian crude. The igniter material
Kontax was used in 25-kg bagged form. One test involved a 9-tonne slick covering about 2000 m (0.5-cm thick) in a free-floating
lumber boom. The bags containing the Kontax were punctured and thrown into the slick. The igniters were successful. Flames of
15 to 20 m high were reported, and a 98 to 99 % oil-removal efficiency was estimated. A Kontax-to-oil ratio of 1:100 by weight
was estimated to be appropriate. The potential of Kontax also was demonstrated at the Arrow spill in 1970 where some of the
spilled oil was primed with two drums of fresh oil and ignited with a Kontax igniter.
X1.1.5 The Kontax igniter produced a large flame area (3000 cm ) with a relatively low flame temperature (770°C).(770 °C). This
combination produced a relatively high flame emissivity of 2.25 kW/m . Although Kontax proved effective in both field and tank
trials as a surface-deployed igniter (5, 7), the device proved less effective when dropped from a height of 11.5 m, simulating
deployment from a helicopter. The ignition success rate declined from 100 % in the surface tests to 60 % in the aerial tests. The
main reason for the latter result was that the large splash caused by the Kontax igniter entering the water drove the oil away. By
the time the oil had returned, the igniter had generated a ring of calcium hydroxide foam that kept the oil away.
X1.1.6 Energetex Engineering (5) tested a modification to the Kontax igniter, which involved combining a small amount of
gasoline with the device. This i
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